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Articles by Urmila Samariya
Page 11 of 11
Network Devices (Hub, Repeater, Bridge, Switch, Router, Gateways and Brouter)
Network devices or networking hardware are the physical devices that are used for establishing connections and facilating interaction between different devices in a computer network. Hub Hubs work in the physical layer of the OSI model. A hub is a device for connecting multiple Ethernet devices and making them act as a single network segment. It has multiple inputs and output ports in which a signal introduced at the input of any port appears at the output of every port except the original incoming port. A hub can be used with both digital and analog data. Hubs do not perform ...
Read MoreInternet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) works in the network layer of the OSI model and the internet layer of the TCP/IP model. It is used to send control messages to network devices and hosts. Routers and other network devices monitor the operation of the network. When an error occurs, these devices send a message using ICMP. Messages that can be sent include "destination unreachable", "time exceeded", and "echo requests".ICMP is a network layer protocol.ICMP messages are not passed directly to the data link layer. The message is first encapsulated inside the IP datagram before going to the lower layer.Types of ...
Read MoreInternet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) Header
Internet protocol version 6 (IPv6) headers is the next generation of the internet protocol designed to replace the current version, or Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4). IPv6 fixes many problems in IPv4, such as the limited number of available IPv4 addresses.IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses; an address space is large enough to last for the predictable future. IPv6 added many improvements to IPv4 in areas such as routing and network auto-configuration.IPv6 is a progressive step from IPv4, some IPv4 functions that do not work were removed from IPv6.IPv6 is an Internet Protocol for packet-switched internetworking; it provides end-to-end datagram transmission across ...
Read MoreDistance Vector Routing (DVR) Protocol
In distance-vector routing (DVR), each router is required to inform the topology changes to its neighboring routers periodically. Historically it is known as the old ARPNET routing algorithm or Bellman-Ford algorithm.How the DVR Protocol WorksIn DVR, each router maintains a routing table. It contains only one entry for each router. It contains two parts − a preferred outgoing line to use for that destination and an estimate of time (delay). Tables are updated by exchanging the information with the neighbor’s nodes.Each router knows the delay in reaching its neighbors (Ex − send echo request).Routers periodically exchange routing tables with each ...
Read MoreDynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a client/server protocol that automatically provides an Internet Protocol (IP) host with its IP address and other related configuration information such as the subnet mask and default gateway. In DHCP, port number 67 is used for the server and 68 is used for the client.DHCP allows a network administrator to supervise and distribute IP addresses from a central point and automatically sends a new Internet Protocol (IP) address when a computer is plugged into a different place in the network.DHCP is an application layer protocol that provides −Subnet MaskRouter AddressIP AddressDHCP Client-Server Communication DiagramIn ...
Read MoreMultiplexing and Demultiplexing in Transport Layer
MultiplexingMultiplexing is the process of collecting the data from multiple application processes of the sender, enveloping that data with headers and sending them as a whole to the intended receiver.In Multiplexing at the Transport Layer, the data is collected from various application processes. These segments contain the source port number, destination port number, header files, and data.These segments are passed to the Network Layer which adds the source and destination IP address to get the datagram.DemultiplexingDelivering the received segments at the receiver side to the correct app layer processes is called demultiplexing.The destination host receives the IP datagrams; each datagram ...
Read MoreARP, Reverse ARP, Inverse ARP, Proxy ARP, and Gratuitous ARP
Address Resolution ProtocolAddress Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a communication protocol that works on the TCP/IP Layer 2.ARP helps to get the MAC address of the connected router or gateway from the IP address.ARP is a request-response protocol in which one device sends a request to another device asking for some information, the other device will respond/reply with the required information.ARP packets are encapsulated by a link-layer and are distributed only in a specific network. ARP is said to be a link-layer protocol.How Does ARP Work?Before sending an IP packet, the sender must know the destination MAC address.If the MAC address ...
Read MorePHP – Return an array of all supported encodings with mb_list_encodings()
The mb_list_encodings() function in PHP is used to return an array of all supported encodings. This function is supported in PHP 5 or higher version.Syntaxarray mb_list_encodings()Parametersmb_list_encodings() takes no parameters.Return ValuesThis function returns a numerically indexed array.Errors/Exceptionsmb_list_encodings() does not produce any errors.Examplemb_list_encodings() does not produce any errors.OutputIt will produce the following output −array(87) { [0]=> string(4) "pass" [1]=> string(4) "auto" [2]=> string(5) "wchar" [3]=> string(7) "byte2be" [4]=> string(7) "byte2le" [5]=> string(7) "byte4be" [6]=> string(7) "byte4le" [7]=> string(6) "BASE64" [8]=> string(8) "UUENCODE" [9]=> string(13) ...
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