Second generation (2G) mobile phones switched from analog system of 1G to digital system. It was commercially launched in 1991 as GSM standard in Finland. As with 1G phones, 2G phones didn’t have any worldwide standardizations. 2G systems were also known as personal communications services (PCM). Advantages of 2G over ... Read More

In U.S. telecommunications, Local access and transport area (LATA) refers to a geographical area in the U.S. which is allocated to telephone companies. The telephone companies, legally termed as local exchange carriers (LECs) provide telecommunication services, within the allotted areas. A LATA may be within the same U.S. state or ... Read More

Global System for Mobile communication (GSM) is the most widely used digital mobile telephony system. GSM technology was first launched in Finland in 1991. It was developed by European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) to describe the protocols for 2G mobile communications.Presently, GSM comprises of approximately 90% of mobile connections worldwide. ... Read More

The network data link layer is the layer above the physical layer in the Open System Interconnections (OSI) model. The primary concern of this layer is to convert the raw transmission facility provided by the physical layer to a reliable and error-free link.In TCP/IP model, the physical layer and the ... Read More

In the OSI (Open System Interconnections) Model, each layer uses the services of the layer below it and provides services to the layer above it. The primary function of the data link layer is to provide a well-defined service interface to the network layer above it. Virtual Communication versus ... Read More

The Backtracking is an algorithmic-technique to solve a problem by an incremental way. It uses recursive approach to solve the problems. We can say that the backtracking is used to find all possible combination to solve an optimization problem. In this Section We are going to cover Hamiltonian Cycle ... Read More

In Python there are some additional standard library methods for mathematical operations, like arithmetic, logical, relational, bitwise etc. operations. These methods can be found under the operator module. To use it at first we need to import it the operator standard library module. import operator In this section ... Read More

Purpose of Byte Stuffing In Data Link layer, the stream of bits from physical layer are divided into data frames. The data frames can be of fixed length or variable length. In variable – length framing, the size of each frame to be transmitted may be different. So, a pattern ... Read More

In Python there is one container called the Dictionary. In the dictionaries, we can map keys to its value. Using dictionary the values can be accessed in constant time. But when the given keys are not present, it may occur some errors. In this section we will see how to ... Read More

Reference Parameters A reference parameter is a reference to a memory location of a variable. The reference parameters represent the same memory location as the actual parameters that are supplied to the method. When you pass parameters by reference, unlike value parameters, a new storage location is not created for ... Read More