Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a technology that transmits multiple signals simultaneously over a single transmission path, such as cable or wireless system. Each carrier is modulated by the data such as text, voice, video etc. Orthogonal FDM spread spectrum technique distributes the data over a large number of carriers that are spaced apart at precise frequencies. This spacing provides the “orthogonality.” This technique, which avoids the demodulators from seeing frequencies other than their own.The basic approach of OFDM is shown in the figure below −The benefit of OFDM is high spectral efficiency, resiliency due to RF interference and lower ... Read More

Bluetooth is a proprietary open wireless technology measure for exchanging information over short areas (using short-wavelength radio channels in the ISM band from 2400-2480 MHz) from permanent and mobile devices.It can be creating personal area networks (PANs) with high levels of security. It was made by telecoms vendor Ericsson in 1994, and it was initially conceived as a wireless method to RS-232 data cables. It can connect multiple devices, overcoming issues of synchronization.Bluetooth is handled by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group, which has more than 14, 000 member companies in telecommunication, computing, networking, and used electronics. Bluetooth is a free ... Read More

TCP represents Transmission Control Protocol. It is a transport layer protocol that facilitates the transmission of packets from source to destination. It is a connectionoriented protocol that defines it creates the connection before the communication that appears between the computing devices in a network.TCP organizes information so that it can be sent between a server and a user. It maintains the integrity of the information being communicated over a network. Before it sends data, TCP creates a connection between a source and its destination, which it provides remains live until communication starts. It then divides huge amounts of information into ... Read More

TCP represents Transmission Control Protocol. It provides reliable data transmission in an IP environment comparable to the OSI model’s Transport layer. The TCP includes stream data transfer dependability, effective flow control, full-duplex services & multiplexing. TCP brought an unordered flow of bytes recognized by sequence number at the destination with current data transfer. This service doesn’t chop data into blocks but groups bytes into segments before handing it to IP for delivery.TCP provides adequacy by supporting the connection-oriented end to end adequate packet delivery by internetwork. It sequences the bytes with a promoting acceptance number that denotes the destination to ... Read More

Link state routing is a method in which each router shares its neighbourhood’s knowledge with every other router in the internetwork. In this algorithm, each router in the network understands the network topology then makes a routing table depend on this topology.Each router will share data about its connection to its neighbour, who will, consecutively, reproduce the data to its neighbours, etc. This appears just before all routers have constructed a topology of the network.In LSP, each node transmits its IP address and the MAC to its neighbor with its signature. Neighbors determine the signature and maintain a record of ... Read More

In this algorithm, to select a route, the algorithm discovers the shortest path between two nodes. It can use multiple hops, the geographical area in kilometres or labelling of arcs for measuring path length.The labelling of arcs can be done with mean queuing, transmission delay for a standard test packet on an hourly basis, or computed as a function of bandwidth, average distance traffic, communication cost, mean queue length, measured delay or some other factors.In shortest path routing, the topology communication network is defined using a directed weighted graph. The nodes in the graph define switching components and the directed ... Read More

This Algorithm changes its routing persistence to pursue changes within the topology and traffic also. Routing decisions are often changed when network topology and load change. Adaptive routing aims to assist avoid packet delivery failure, improve network performance and relieve network congestion.Adaptive routing can generate nodes to develop into overloaded because of the complex processing decisions they create. Because routers send data about the network topology, adaptive routing is often less ensure than non-adaptive routing processes and needed more bandwidth.It is equivalent to GPS, which uses data about road conditions to redirect drivers, adaptive routing uses data about network congestion ... Read More

The services of the network layer are routing the packets from source to destination devices. It can do this in a single pass or many passes. The algorithm which selects the routes and data structures that they facilitate is known as the routing algorithm. This is a significant field of network layer design. They are that element of network layer application responsible for transmitting the output channel for an incoming packet.In the case of datagrams, the decisions create new for each appearing data packet, and in the case of the virtual circuit, they are made only once, i.e., when a ... Read More

This layer is the third layer of the OSI model, and it is the lowest layer that manages end to end transmission and provides services to the transport layer. The network layer’s primary role is to route the messages associated with the higher protocol layer above it and across the network (the network which links the distributed DTEs systems).The Network Layer can operate both in a connectionless-mode as well as in a connectionoriented mode. In LANs, the frame is addressed and routed between nodes attached to the same LAN using their point of attachment address.The network layer is also known ... Read More

Protocols define a collection of rules or conventions for executing a definite function. It is a collection of the requirements that can manage the data link layer. The fundamental goals of computer broadcasting in a system environment are to transmit a limitless huge message from the source hub to the destination hub.The major service of the Data Link Layer is to send the datagram across a single connection. In Data Link Layer, the datagram can be managed by various link layer protocols on multiple connections in a path. For example, the datagram is managed by Ethernet on the primary link, ... Read More