In hierarchical routing, the routers are divided into regions. Each router has complete details about how to route packets to destinations within its own region. But it does not have any idea about the internal structure of other regions.As we know, in both LS and DV algorithms, every router needs to save some information about other routers. When network size is growing, the number of routers in the network will increase. Therefore, the size of routing table increases, then routers cannot handle network traffic as efficiently. To overcome this problem we are using hierarchical routing.In hierarchical routing, routers are classified ... Read More

Load-sensitive routing algorithms have been integrated into the Internet routing algorithms since the early days of ARPANET. The drawback of this condition leads to overreaction to changing network conditions and permanent oscillation effects finally caused the idea of load-adaptive routing to be dropped for some decades.There is a tremendous growth of interest in traffic engineering and in load-sensitive routing in general from the last year onwards.Many studies testify that with the stability mechanisms integrated these kinds of algorithms strongly outperform the traditional shortest-path IP routing.In the study of load-sensitive routing algorithms several emerging approaches to load-sensitive routing are presented and ... Read More

Dynamic routing is an adaptive routing algorithm, and it is a process where a router can forward data through a different route.The term is most associated with data networking to describe the capability of a network to 'route around' damage, such as loss of a node or a connection between nodes, so if other path choices are available. Dynamic routing allows many routes to remain valid in response to the change.Systems that do not implement dynamic routing are usually preferred to static routing, because static routes through a network are described by fixed paths. If anything, those that take an ... Read More

Static routing algorithm is a form of routing which occurs when a router uses a manual configuration routing entry rather than dynamic entry.In different cases, static routes are manually configured by a network administrator by adding entries into the routing table. It is not possible in all cases. Static routes are fixed and do not change if the network is changed or reconfigured.Static and dynamic routing is not mutually exclusive. They are usually used on a router to maximise routing efficiency and to provide backups in the event that dynamic routing information fails to be exchanged.UsesThe different uses of Static ... Read More

Data link layer protocols are divided into two categories based on whether the transmission channel is noiseless or noisy. The data link layer protocol is diagrammatically represented below − Noiseless Channels There are two noiseless channels which are as follows − Simplex channel Stop & wait channel Let us consider an ideal channel where no frames are lost, duplicated, or corrupted. We introduce two protocols for this type of channel. These two protocols are as follows − Protocol that does not use flow control. Protocol that uses the ... Read More

In transmission media is the way the systems are connected to route data signals in a network.The telecommunication links are classified into two categories −Guided media (wired)Unguided media (wireless).Both guided and unguided are used for short distance (LANs, MANs) as well as long distance (WANs) communication.Let us discuss Guided transmission media.Guided transmission mediaGuided transmission media consists of physical connection between source and destination through a wire or a cable.There are three basic types of guided media which are as follows −Twisted pair cableCo-axial cableFiber-optic cableTwisted Pair CopperStep 1 − It is the most used media across the world. All the ... Read More

Transmission impairment occurs when the received signal is different from the transmitted signal. As we know, a signal can be transmitted as Analog signal or it can be transmitted as a digital signal.In Analog signals due to transmission impairment the resulting received signal gets different amplitude or the shape. In the case of digitally transmitted signals at the receiver side we get changes in bits (0's or 1's).CausesThere are various causes of transmission impairments, which are as follows −NoiseDelay DistortionAttenuation DistortionLet us discuss noise which is one of the causes for transmission impairments.NoiseNoise is the major factor for the transmission ... Read More

Transmission impairment occurs when the received signal is different from the transmitted signal. As we know, a signal can be transmitted as Analog signal or it can be transmitted as a digital signal.In Analog signals due to transmission impairment the resulting received signal gets different amplitude or the shape. In the case of digitally transmitted signals at the receiver side we get changes in bits (0's or 1's).CausesThere are various causes of transmission impairments, which are as follows −NoiseDelay DistortionAttenuation DistortionLet us discuss Delay Distortion.Delay DistortionThis kind of distortion is mainly appearing in case of composite signals in which a ... Read More

Transmission impairment occurs when the received signal is different from the transmitted signal. As we know, a signal can be transmitted as Analog signal or it can be transmitted as a digital signal.In Analog signals due to transmission impairment the resulting received signal gets different amplitude or the shape. In the case of digitally transmitted signals at the receiver side we get changes in bits (0's or 1's).CausesThere are various causes of transmission impairments, which are as follows −NoiseDelay DistortionAttenuation DistortionLet us discuss Attenuation Distortion.Attenuation DistortionAttenuation is generally decreased in signal strength, by which the received signal will be difficult ... Read More

The real function of every layer in OSI is to provide services to the layer above it.Network Services TerminologyThe network services terminology is explained below −Entities − In each layer there are so many active elements. An entity can be a software entity or a hardware entity. For example, a software entity is Process and a hardware entity is Intelligent I/O chipPeer Entities − Entities in the same layer on different machines are called peer entities.Service Provider and Service User − The entities in layer N-1 implement a service used by layer N. Layer N-1 is called the Service Provider ... Read More