Let us understand the concept of piconet and scatternet before learning the differences between them.PiconetA piconet is a network created by connecting multiple wireless devices using Bluetooth technology. In a piconet network a master device exists, this master device cm gets connected to 7 more slave devices.It includes the master the number of devices that can be connected is limited to 8. Due to less number of devices active at a time the usage of channel band width is not more.Number of devices that can be connected is limited to 8. It is applicable for devices belonging to small areas.Given ... Read More

A group of communication in a computer network is multicasting, where a sender sends data to multiple receivers simultaneously. Simply in Multicasting we send data across a computer network to several users at the same time. It supports one-to-many and many-to-many data transmission across LANs or WANs.User Datagram Protocol (UDP)The most common protocol (transport layer protocol) to use multicast addressing is User Datagram Protocol (UDP).User datagram protocol is defined as the simplest transport layer communication protocol available of the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) protocol suite. It is one of the core members of the Internet protocol suite. It Increases ... Read More

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a router protocol used to find the best path for packets as they pass through a set of connected networks.This protocol is designated by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) one of the Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs) aimed at traffic moving around within a larger autonomous system network like a single enterprise's network, which may in turn be made up of many separate local area networks linked through routers.ExplanationArea 1 Border router Area 0 Backbone zone Border router Area 2 OSPF.OSPF protocol is called a link state routing protocol, which maintains link state databases. ... Read More

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) shares error reporting and device status messages which can be further divided into specific message types with their codes.These message types can be divided into two categories −Error Reporting MessagesQuery MessagesThese message types are shown below −Error Reporting MessagesThese are messages which are sent when an error is reported by ICMP protocol.Some of common messages under this category are as follows:Destination Unreachable (Type 3)One of the most common error reporting messages occurs when the router is unable to locate the path of the packet where it is needed to be delivered and in this case ... Read More

There are three security issues that are applicable to the IP protocol −Packet SniffingPacket ModificationIP SpoofingLet us discuss each issue in detail.Packet SniffingA guest may intercept an IP packet and create a copy of it.The packet sniffing is generally a passive attack, where the attacker does not change the contents of the packet.Packet sniffing attack is difficult to detect because here the sender and receiver doesn’t know that the packet has been copied.Even though the packet sniffing cannot be stopped, the encryption of the packet can make the attacker’s effort useless. Still the attackers may sniff the packet, but the ... Read More

The Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is called the fourth version in the development of the Internet Protocol. Its address is a 32-bit address which uniquely defines the connection that means here each address defines one, and only one, connection to the Internet.If a device has two connections to the Internet, via two networks, then we call it has two IPv4 addresses.IPv4 addresses are universal in a sense where the addressing system must be accepted by any host that wants to be connected to the Internet.Ipv4 address notationThere are three notations to show an IPv4 address which are as follows ... Read More

Let us understand the concept of flow control and congestion control.Flow controlIt is handled by a receiving side and it safeguards that a sender can only send something that a receiver can control or handle.Flow control handles a mechanism available to safeguard that communication flows smoothly.For example, a situation where somebody has a quick fiber connection could be sending on something or dial up similar. A sender could have the capability to send packets quickly, however that can be useless to a receiver on dialup. Thus they require a method to throttle the sending side.The issues related to flow control ... Read More

The Congestion at the network layer came across two issues which are throughput and delay.Based on DelayWhen compared to capacity of the network, if load is less, the delay is minimum.Here the minimum delay is composed of propagation delay and processing delay and both are negligible.Therefore, when load reaches the network capacity, the delay increases because we must add the queuing delay to the total delay.When the load is greater than the capacity the delay becomes infinite.Based on ThroughoutWhen load is below the capacity of the network, the throughput increases proportional to the load.After the load reaches the capacity, we ... Read More

The performance of a network can be measured in terms of Delay, Throughput and Packet loss.Let us try to understand the concept of Delay.DelayA packet from its source to its destination, encounters delays. The delays in a network can be divided into four types as follows −Transmission delayTransmission delay is the amount of time taken by the router to transfer the packet to the outgoing link is called transmission delay.For example, assume that you have 100 kb of data. For this data, you have to keep on this outgoing link and this is known as Transmission delay.Suppose you are vacating ... Read More

A protocol is a set of rules and standards that primarily outline a language that devices will use to communicate. There are an excellent range of protocols in use extensively in networking, and that they are usually implemented in numerous layers.It provides a communication service where the process is used to exchange the messages. When the communication is simple, we can use only one simple protocol.When the communication is complex, we must divide the task between different layers, so, we need to follow a protocol at each layer, this technique we used to call protocol layering. This layering allows us ... Read More