The industrial location is affected by two economic variables, such as the techniques and the scale of production. Many theories have been formulated to find the optimal industrial location where the input costs are at their lowest and the revenues generated out of them are at their highest, obtaining maximum profit. Hence, the locational theories are divided into two groups namely, the least cost approach and the maximum revenue approach theories, out of which Alfred Weber chose the least cost approach to root the location of an industry or a firm. Historical Background In 1909, Alfred Weber, the German economist, ... Read More

Various physical and socio-economic factors, such as soil, climate, geology, terrain, labor, social customs, culture, government schemes, etc., determine the pattern of agriculture in a given location. Geographers, with the help of this set of conditions, came up with various theories to determine the landuse pattern, crop productivity, and location of agriculture. Von Thunen’s theory on Agricultural location is one of the earliest attempts to reason out the variation in agricultural landuse with respect to distance from the market. Historical Background If the pioneer of modern economics was Adam Smith, so was Von Thunen for modern location economics. His experience ... Read More

A triple junction is the point where the boundaries of three tectonic plates meet. There are 25 unique types of triple junctions distributed across the world, defined by the types of boundaries. The motion of one lithospheric plate relative to an adjacent plate result in the deformation of plate boundaries. Here, the triple junction plays an interesting role in the study of the current plate system. At any boundary between two plates, the plates are either spreading apart (forming mid oceanic ridges), pushing together (forming trenches, fold mountains, and volcanic systems), or sliding past each other (forming transform ... Read More

The submarine canyons are one of the prominent erosional features along the continental margins and also in the deep-sea environment. Such canyons are found everywhere and across all the oceans. Historical Background Initially, canyons were discovered on the Georges Bank based on their exact positions and surroundings, which resulted in the emergence of explanations for various theories. On investigating the Atlantic coast of the United States, the scientist named Francis Sheppard advocated the earliest theory in this regard. To explain the origin of submarine canyons, the following major theories were put forward. Diastrophic Theory ... Read More

Spykman advanced the Rimland theory in opposition to Mackinder's Heartland theory. Working from the same premises as Mackinder, Spykman gave a very different interpretation of the relative importance of the Heartland vis-à-vis the surrounded tier, the Inner or Marginal Crescent, "partly continental and partly oceanic", which Spykman renamed as the "Rimland". Historical Background Nicholas J. Spykman was a professor of international relations at Yale University and the director of the Yale Institute of International Studies. The most outstanding contribution of the American scholar was his book, "The Geography of the Peace", published in 1944. Spykman considered that Mackinder’s reasoning ... Read More

Industrial geography is more inclined towards observation of the real world than abstract theories. One of the significant geographers, D.M. Smith aimed at bringing spatial dimensions into conventional locational theories. Historical Background The British geographer David M. Smith practiced locational analysis and came up with a theoretical framework for the location of industries. In 1971, he proposed an industrial model by publishing his book, "Industrial Location, " based on his observations made at a steel mill situated in Brazil. Since his theory explains the concept of "spatial margin locations" and their profitability for an industry, it is also ... Read More

The advent of industrialization brought a drastic change in the socio-economic conditions of the world's nations and introduced the concept of modernization. Before the period of 20th century, the western world was seen as the characterization of modernization that was able to climb the ladder starting from under development. Other countries tend to model themselves after the west to seek the way of growing culture of modernization. Later, Rostow's Stages of Growth model was developed, that focuses on stages of industrialization, urbanization and economic growth and development on linear pattern observing the then countries. Historical Background ... Read More

Migration of population from one region to another is largely determined by the behavior of individuals in addition to the major economic, political and environmental factors. The Ravenstein model is one of the prominent models involved in the macroanalysis of migration. Historical background E.G. Ravenstein, the English geographer, is considered the earliest migration theorist, and his work laid the foundation for subsequent research on migration. During the late 19th century, he made the first attempt to draw out the "Laws of Migration" using the Census data (1885-1889) from England and Wales. He deduced that population migration occurs ... Read More

Plate tectonics is a unifying, integrated and holistic theory that deals with the whole mechanism of evolution, nature and motion of the plates and their resultant reactions. This theory describes and explains Evolution and development, decay and death of continents and oceans. Origin of endogenetic forces and related landforms. Origin and distribution of earthquakes, volcanism and fold mountains. Movements of Plates Thermal convective current originating from mantle-core boundary is the source for the movement of the plates. Rising and laterally spreading outflowing thermal convective current causes the plates to diverge, whereas laterally inflowing and sinking thermal convective current ... Read More

Paleomagnetism helps to investigate the past direction, magnitude, and polarity of the earth's magnetic field, since during the formation of rocks, they lock in the record of the direction and intensity of the magnetic field. Paleomagnetic data has played an instrumental role in deciphering the history of our planet, giving supporting evidence for continental drift and global and regional plate tectonics. Historical background Geophysicists who specialize in paleomagnetism are called paleomagnetists. In 1849, French physicist Achilles Delesse observed that certain minerals in rocks positioned themselves in line with the earth’s magnetic field, in a way that tiny compasses ... Read More