In simple words, both correlation and covariance show the relationship and the dependency between two variables.Covariance shows the direction of the path of the linear relationship between the variables while a function is applied to them.Correlation on the contrary measures both the power and direction of the linear relationship between two variables.In simple terms, correlation is a function of the covariance. The fact that differentiates the two is that covariance values are not standardized while correlation values are. The correlation coefficient of two variables can be obtained by dividing the covariance values of these variables by the multiplication of the ... Read More

In a study done to link the variance with returns, it was found that both genres of portfolio construction measures – minimum volatility and low volatility – deliver market return more than the average. Their information ratios (IRs) also are not statistically significant. It was also found that both strategies let investors assume palpable risk, in relation to the market prices, for which investors were not compensated.Minimum Variance Portfolio (MVP)The concept of Modern Portfolio Theory (MPT) has been the milestone for finance professionals for portfolio construction since Harry Markowitz introduced the idea into finance in 1952. Every finance student has ... Read More

Capital Market Line (CML) is a line that talks about a portfolio that accurately combines both risk and returns. It is a graphical representation that shows a portfolio’s expected and required return based on a chosen level of risk. The portfolios that are on the CML optimize the required risk and return relationship that maximizes the performance of the portfolio.Note − The slope of Capital Market Line is known as the Sharpe Ratio of the market portfolio. It is now believed by many investors that one should buy a security if the Sharpe ratio is above the CML and sell ... Read More

Mean-Variance AnalysisMean-Variance Analysis is a process that investors utilize to make investment decisions based on their risk tolerance. Investors actually consider the potential variance given by the volatility of returns produced by an asset in the market against the required expected returns of that asset. The mean-variance analysis looks into the average variance in the required expected return from an investment.The mean-variance analysis is a part of Modern Portfolio Theory (MPT) which is based on the assumption that investors tend to make rational decisions when they possess enough information. The theory also relies on the fact that investors enter the ... Read More

What is CAPM?The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) describes the association between the anticipated return and the risks of investing in a security. It represents the fact that the expected return on an asset is equal to the risk-free return rate plus a premium for taking the risk that is based on the beta of the security.Assessing the CAPM requires proper knowledge of systematic and unsystematic risks.Systematic risks are the general dangers, which apply to all forms of investment. For example, inflation rate, Wars, recessions, etc., are systematic risks.Unsystematic risks, on the other hand, show the specific dangers associated with ... Read More

A market portfolio is an assumed or virtual portfolio where every available type of asset is included in proportion to its market value. An investment portfolio is a group of investments that are owned and managed by one individual or organization. A typical investment portfolio may include numerous types of assets, but usually, it does not include all asset types. A market portfolio, however, virtually includes every asset that is available in the market.How is the market portfolio managed?A market portfolio is created to have the right mix of asset classes to maximize the returns from the investment and to ... Read More

The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) has some assumptions upon which it is built. Here are the five most influential assumptions of CAPM −The investors are risk-averseCAPM deals with risk-averse investors who do not want to take the risk, yet want to earn the most from their portfolios. Diversification is needed to provide these investors more returns.Choice on the basis of risks and returnsCAPM states that Investors make investment decisions based on risk and return. The return and risk are calculated by the variance and the mean of the portfolio. CAPM reinstates that rational investors discard their diversifiable risks or ... Read More

Portfolio Risk and ReturnThe general standard deviation (SD) of a portfolio is related to −The weighted mean average of each individual variance, andThe generally weighted covariances between all assets in the portfolio of investment.When a new asset is added to a large basket of portfolios with many assets, the new asset alters the portfolio's SD in two ways. It affects −The new asset's own variance, andThe covariance between the new asset and each of the other assets in the portfolio.The net effect of the numerous covariances will be more important than the effect of the asset's own variance. The more ... Read More

Portfolio standard deviation is the general standard deviation of a portfolio of investments of more than one asset. It shows the total risk of the portfolio and is important data in the calculation of the Sharpe ratio.It is a well-known principle of finance that "more the diversification, less is the risk." It is true unless there is a perfect and well-established correlation between the returns on the portfolio investments. To achieve the highest benefits of diversification, the standard deviation of a portfolio of investments should be lower than the general weighted average of each standard deviation of the individual investments.In ... Read More

The slope of a capital market line of a portfolio is its Sharpe Ratio. We know that the greater the returns of a portfolio, the greater the risk. The optimal and the best portfolio is often described as the one that earns the maximum return taking the least amount of risk.One method used by professionals to increase returns taking minimal risks is the eponymous "Sharpe Ratio". The Sharpe ratio is a calculation of risk-adjusted returns of how good is the investment return vis-a-vis the amount of risk taken. An increased Sharpe ratio for an investment means a better risk-adjusted return.How ... Read More