A future contract is the contract between a buyer and a seller, where the buyer agrees to buy a particular asset at a predetermined price. Buyer in the future contract will hold a long position and the seller will have a short position.Future contracts allow companies to hedge their risk associated with the interest rates, exchange rates and business risk with commodity prices. Future contract helps investors to obtain exposure to a stock or a bond or a market (stock) index or any other financial assets.FeaturesThe features of future contract are as follows −Organised exchanges − These are traded in ... Read More

Hedge ratio is a ratio of value of hedge position to the value of total exposure. Value of hedge position is the total amount invested by investors in hedged position and value of total exposure is total amount invested by investor in underlying assets.Hedge ratio also can be a comparative value of future contracts, which are sold or purchased with change in value of cash commodity that are being hedged. Hedge ratio is expressed in decimal or fraction. If value is zero means, position is not at all hedged, similarly, if the value is one means, position is fully hedged.Investor ... Read More

In this method, companies are allowed to recognize their gains and losses on hedging instruments against exposure of derivative instruments to reduce income volatility, if both are accounted separately.The main purpose of hedge accounting is to match the derivative gain/loss with underlying investment gain/loss. Its main advantage is that it can recognize both the transactions in the same accounting period.Hedge accounting International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) 9 contains the following −Classification and measurement of financial instruments.Impairment of financial assets.TypesThe types of hedge accounting are as follows −Fair value hedge − Change in fair value of asset/liability/unrecognised firm commitment.Cash flow hedge ... Read More

Hedging is designed to protect the share value from market volatility. In simple words, it acts like an insurance coverage which protects you from any potential loss.The main purpose of hedging is to minimise/eliminate risk by offsetting the potential losses. Investors follow this to safeguard their investments from losses due to market volatility. Hedging is also done in areas like commodities, securities, currencies etc.TypesThe types of hedging include −Forward contractsFuture contractsMoney marketsStrategiesThe various strategies to mitigate losses are as follows −Asset allocation − Portfolio diversification.Structure − Some part is invested in portfolio and some in derivatives.Through options − Options of ... Read More

The major differences between Indian GAAP (Generally Accepted Accounting Principles) and US GAAP (United States Generally Accepted Accounting Principles) are as follows −Indian GAAP (Generally Accepted Accounting Principles)Financial statements are prepared in accordance with the principle of conservatism.Financial statements are prepared with presentation requirements of schedule VI of companies ACT, 1956.Only listed companies are mandated for cash flow statements.Provides prescribed depreciation rates (schedule XVI of companies Act, 1956).No requirement is provided for a portion of long term debt.Preparation of financial statements for subsidiary companies is not mandatory.Investments are classified as current investments, long term investments and investment property.For integral and ... Read More

ProblemABC Company entered into a forward contract to buy its own shares.Details for the same are given below and here, XXXX refers to the respective year.Contract date − 1st Jan XXXXMaturity date − 31st Dec XXXXExercise price of $110No of shares − 1500Market price − $100 (as on 1st Jan XXXX)Market price − $150 (as on 1st Mar XXXX)Market price − $130 (as on 31st Dec XXXX)Calculate the accounting entries for forward contract as per the given information.SolutionThe solution is explained below −Fair value of forward (on 31st March) = 1500 * (150 -110) => 60000Fair value of forward (on 31st ... Read More

The accounting for forward contracts is written as follows −Here, XXXX and XXX refer to the respective amount.RecognizeSince the agreement is for a future date, it should be accounted for now (date of signed, date of which physical exchange).CreditDebitAsset obligationXXXXAsset ReceivableXXXXRecording (seller perspective)Asset obligation credited for spot rate and asset receivables and contra asset debited/credited for forward rate. Contra asset is the difference between spot rate and forward rate.CreditDebitAsset obligationXXXXAsset ReceivableXXXXContra assetXXXXXXRecording (from buyer perspective)Payable amount credited at forward rate and contra asset credited/debited at contra asset account. Asset receivable debited.CreditDebitContracts receivableXXXXAsset obligationXXXXContra assetXXXXXXRecording on date of exchange (seller perspective)Asset ... Read More

ProblemPrepare a job sheet using the transactions given below −Amount ($)Raw materials750000Work in progress (job A)310000Utility costs50000Direct labour costs125000Advertising expenses310000Indirect labour costs202000Travel expenses40000Raw materials675000Insurance15000Work in progress (Job B)295000Finished goods1089700Direct labour costs98000Cost of goods sold963000Indirect labour costs103000Sales2058000Manufacturing overheads1158009564500Administrative expenses105000Carrying balancesSales commissions195000Raw materials30000Manufacturing overheads220000Work-in-progress88000Depreciation (equipment)45000Cost of goods sold28000146000SolutionThe job sheet for the respective transactions is as follows −Raw materialsManufacturing overheadsCarrying balance30000Work in progress (job B)295000Used in next year750000Depreciation overhead220000780000Sales commissions195000Work in progress (job A)675000Utilities overhead50000Balance105000Insurance overhead15000775000Work in progress (A+B)605000Balance170000Work in progressNet operating incomeCarrying balance88000Sales2058000Work in progress (job A)310000Cost of goods soldDirect labour costs125000Carrying balance28000Indirect labour costs202000Cost of goods sold in next year963000Work ... Read More

Job costing is the basic job costing method used to determine the cost of a specific job, performed according to the customer requirement. This is the type where work is done by contracts or separate projects.This type of costing is useful for the firms producing not identical products. Manufacturing firms use this method to control use of raw material, equipment and working hours and they will allocate the costs accordingly.ObjectivesThe objectives of job costing are as follows −Provides separate accounts for each process, maintain the development of each job, to estimate the costs, when transitioning from one process to another ... Read More

Contracts are divided as follows −validity/enforceabilityformationperformanceSub classification of contracts is given below −Based onValidity/enforceability Formation PerformanceValid contractsExpress contractExecute contractVoid contractsImplied contractExecutor contractVoidable contractsQuasi-contracIllegal agreementsUnenforceable contractsE.com. contractsunilateral contractbilateral contractNow, let us understand the types of contracts in detail.Validity/enforceabilityValid contract − It is an agreement, which is binding and enforceable.Void contract − It is a contract, which cannot be enforced by law.Voidable contract − If consent of a party is not free then, the contract becomes voidable contract.Illegal contract − The law forbids it to be made for a contract.Unenforceable contract − If both the parties cannot sue on contract due to technical reasons, it is ... Read More