Introduction Thorns and spines are modified organs of plants. They evolved from a simple leaf or shoot to function as a defensive organ to protect themselves from the predators, sometimes they used it as a climbing tool. In xerophytes, the stems are modified to phylloclades that store water for future use and change the leaf conformation into the spines. The spines are adapted because the leaves decrease the surface volume of the leaf lamina to control the evaporation and reduce transpiration rates as well. Whereas the thorns mainly control the defense. Now let’s start the further discussion.. Thorns Thorns ... Read More

Introduction The immune system protects the body from foreign substances which are harmful to the body. Bacteria, viruses, fungi, and toxins are included in the foreign substances. The immune system comprises an extensive network of cells, organs, proteins, and tissue present in the body. The immune system can be recognized and eliminated faulty cells. Sometimes immune system fails to fight against diseases. The immune system mainly consists of a range of components WBC, spleen, bone marrow, lymphatic system, thymus, tonsils, adrenals, and appendix. T cells and B cells are two lymphocytes produced in lymphoid organs. The thymus gland and ... Read More

Introduction to the autonomic nervous system The nervous system is an important system that plays an important role in every action of life and is responsible for all involuntary and voluntary actions of our body. It constitutes the nerve network, spinal cord, and brain and is classified into three divisions. The central nervous system, autonomic nervous system, and peripheral nervous system are the three divisions of the nervous system. Autonomic nervous system control and regulates the involuntary function of the internal organs. This function is done without a person's conscious effort. The autonomic nervous system is segregated into sympathetic and ... Read More

Introduction Angiosperms are the most progressive plant species inhabiting the land. Reproduction in flowering plants starts with the division of fertilized egg to form an embryo. The plants follow a haplodiplontic pattern that alternates between gametophytic and sporophytic phases. Thus it is important to have clear knowledge between the two generations. Gametogenesis occurs in gametophytes followed by a union of gametes to form a diploid zygote. The fertilization results in the formation of diploid sporophytes, producing haploid spores through meiosis. The spores so formed undergo mitotic division to yield multicellular haploid gametophyte. So in Plantae, a single genome creates two ... Read More

Introduction In all living things reproduction is the criterion that makes life move from one generation to the other. Gametogenesis is that process which takes place both in the male and female sex. In gametogenesis, the formation of the male gametes (sex cells) and female gametes takes place separately. In biological terms, gametogenesis can be termed as the process in which a diploid cell divides and transforms into mature haploid gametes. Gametogenesis is of two types: Spermatogenesis and oogenesis. The major steps in gametogenesis are − Mitotic division and cell growth of germ cells Meiosis I and II occur ... Read More

Introduction The sperm is a male gamete, produced in the testes. It remains inactivated before ejaculation in the female tract that has a specific pH range helps in the capacitation of the sperm and controls its motility towards the ovum. The mitochondria supplies energy and the flagellum helps in propelling. In the ovary, the ovum is produced and matures but remains dormant. Though a million sperms are ejaculated, only the capacitated one can penetrate the outer membrane via dissolving to enter inside the ovum. Only the nucleus and the centrioles of the sperm can enter the ovum leaving the flagellum. ... Read More

Introduction The living organisms in a given specific geographical area live together with other organisms and interact among themselves as well as with the environmental factors. The organisms are extremely diverse and range from single cellular entities to highly complex multicellular organisms. They interact irrespective of their dissimilarities for the benefit of each other and continue their propagation in the specified environmental conditions. Abiotic factors like temperature, humidity, sunlight, and nutrient availability influence the survival of living organisms. Changes in the quality or quantity of the abiotic or biotic components can influence the living of other organisms. The ecosystems ... Read More

Introduction The minute we think about the concept of hibernation, we think about a bear in a deep sleep phase. The general consensus is that the two phenomena, i.e., sleep and hibernation, are very similar and co-related to each other, which is an inaccurate fact. Sleep and hibernation not only differ from each other on a physiological level but are also very different chemically and biologically. Sleep Sleep is a vital life process for animals to rejuvenate themselves. It is a maintenance process during which the physical anatomy is at ease but the metabolic processes continue to function. Sleep ... Read More

Introduction Along with carbohydrates and proteins, fats are one of the three basic macronutrient groups in the human diet. Fatty acids, which are another name for fat, are composed of the three essential elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with carbon making up a large portion of the composition. The majority of the fats required for fundamental physiological activities are produced by our bodies. However, those that the body cannot make and that must be consumed through diet are referred to as Essential Fats. The three primary forms of fat are unsaturated fats (got from plant-based food), saturated fats (got from ... Read More

Introduction Fungi are eukaryotic organisms containing proper cell walls and membrane-bound organelles. These are heterotrophs and depend on other organisms for food and nutrition. Fungi are economically essential as they feed on dead and decaying matter, breaking complex minerals into simple ones and supplying them back to the soil. This nature of fungi helps in completing various nutrient cycles and maintaining the nutrient balance of the environment. Basidiomycetes are one such class of higher fungi, which are parasitic in nature and cause various plant diseases such as black rust of wheat, loose smut of sorghum, maize smut etc. Rust Rust ... Read More