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Found 337 Articles for DBMS
![Bhanu Priya](https://www.tutorialspoint.com/assets/profiles/314653/profile/60_78287-1615027882.jpg)
18K+ Views
A transaction is a unit of database processing which contains a set of operations. For example, deposit of money, balance enquiry, reservation of tickets etc.Every transaction starts with delimiters begin transaction and terminates with end transaction delimiters. The set of operations within these two delimiters constitute one transaction.main() { begin transaction } end transactionA transaction is divided into states to handle various situations such as failure. It passes through various states during its lifetime. The state of a transaction is defined by the current activity it is performing.At a particular instant of time, a transaction can be in one ... Read More
![Bhanu Priya](https://www.tutorialspoint.com/assets/profiles/314653/profile/60_78287-1615027882.jpg)
50K+ Views
Query is a question or requesting information. Query language is a language which is used to retrieve information from a database.Query language is divided into two types −Procedural languageNon-procedural languageProcedural languageInformation is retrieved from the database by specifying the sequence of operations to be performed.For Example: Relational algebra.Structure Query language (SQL) is based on relational algebra.Relational algebra consists of a set of operations that take one or two relations as an input and produces a new relation as output.Types of Relational Algebra operationsThe different types of relational algebra operations are as follows −Select operationProject operationRename operationUnion operationIntersection operationDifference operationCartesian product ... Read More
![Bhanu Priya](https://www.tutorialspoint.com/assets/profiles/314653/profile/60_78287-1615027882.jpg)
15K+ Views
Cost-based optimization is expensive. Heuristics are used to reduce the number of choices that must be made in a cost-based approach.RulesHeuristic optimization transforms the expression-tree by using a set of rules which improve the performance. These rules are as follows −Perform the SELECTION process foremost in the query. This should be the first action for any SQL table. By doing so, we can decrease the number of records required in the query, rather than using all the tables during the query.Perform all the projection as soon as achievable in the query. Somewhat like a selection but this method helps in ... Read More
![Bhanu Priya](https://www.tutorialspoint.com/assets/profiles/314653/profile/60_78287-1615027882.jpg)
8K+ Views
SQL queries are decomposed into query blocks. One query block contains a single SELECT-FROM-WHERE expression, as well as GROUP BY and HAVING clause (if any). Nested queries are split into separate query blocks.ExampleConsider an example given below −Select lastname, firstname from employee where salary>(select max(salary) from employee where deptname =CSE ; C=(select max(salary) from employee where deptname=CSE); // inner block Select lastname, firstname from employee where salary>c; //outer blockWhere C represents the result returned from the inner block.The relation algebra for the inner block is Ģmax(salary) (σdname=CSE(employee))The relation algebra for the outer blocks is Πlastname, firstname(σsalary>c(employee))The query optimizer would then ... Read More
![Bhanu Priya](https://www.tutorialspoint.com/assets/profiles/314653/profile/60_78287-1615027882.jpg)
8K+ Views
Query is a question or requesting information. Query language is a language which is used to retrieve information from a database.Query language is divided into two types −Procedural languageNon-procedural languageProcedural languageInformation is retrieved from the database by specifying the sequence of operations to be performed.For Example − Relational algebra.Structure Query language (SQL) is based on relational algebra.Relational algebra consists of a set of operations that take one or two relations as an input and produces a new relation as output.Types of Relational Algebra operationsThe different types of relational algebra operations are as follows −Select operationProject operationRename operationUnion operationIntersection operationDifference operationCartesian ... Read More
![Bhanu Priya](https://www.tutorialspoint.com/assets/profiles/314653/profile/60_78287-1615027882.jpg)
8K+ Views
Query is a question or requesting information. Query language is a language which is used to retrieve information from a database.Query language is divided into two types −Procedural languageNon-procedural languageProcedural languageInformation is retrieved from the database by specifying the sequence of operations to be performed.For Example − Relational algebra.Structure Query language (SQL) is based on relational algebra.Relational algebra consists of a set of operations that take one or two relations as an input and produces a new relation as output.Types of Relational Algebra operationsThe different types of relational algebra operations are as follows −Select operationProject operationRename operationUnion operationIntersection operationDifference operationCartesian ... Read More
![Bhanu Priya](https://www.tutorialspoint.com/assets/profiles/314653/profile/60_78287-1615027882.jpg)
9K+ Views
Query is a question or requesting information. Query language is a language which is used to retrieve information from a database.Query language is divided into two types −Procedural languageNon-procedural languageProcedural languageInformation is retrieved from the database by specifying the sequence of operations to be performed.For Example − Relational algebra.Structure Query language (SQL) is based on relational algebra.Relational algebra consists of a set of operations that take one or two relations as an input and produces a new relation as output.Types of Relational Algebra operationsThe different types of relational algebra operations are as follows −Select operationProject operationRename operationUnion operationIntersection operationDifference operationCartesian ... Read More
![Bhanu Priya](https://www.tutorialspoint.com/assets/profiles/314653/profile/60_78287-1615027882.jpg)
11K+ Views
Query is a question or requesting information. Query language is a language which is used to retrieve information from a database.Query language is divided into two types −Procedural languageNon-procedural languageProcedural languageInformation is retrieved from the database by specifying the sequence of operations to be performed.For Example − Relational algebra.Structure Query language (SQL) is based on relational algebra.Relational algebra consists of a set of operations that take one or two relations as an input and produces a new relation as output.Types of Relational Algebra operationsThe different types of relational algebra operations are as follows −Select operationProject operationRename operationUnion operationIntersection operationDifference operationCartesian ... Read More
![Bhanu Priya](https://www.tutorialspoint.com/assets/profiles/314653/profile/60_78287-1615027882.jpg)
10K+ Views
Query is a question or requesting information. Query language is a language which is used to retrieve information from a database.Query language is divided into two types −Procedural languageNon-procedural languageProcedural languageInformation is retrieved from the database by specifying the sequence of operations to be performed.For Example − Relational algebra.Structure Query language (SQL) is based on relational algebra.Relational algebra consists of a set of operations that take one or two relations as an input and produces a new relation as output.Types of Relational Algebra operationsThe different types of relational algebra operations are as follows −Select operationProject operationRename operationUnion operationIntersection operationDifference operationCartesian ... Read More
![Bhanu Priya](https://www.tutorialspoint.com/assets/profiles/314653/profile/60_78287-1615027882.jpg)
7K+ Views
Query is a question or requesting information. Query language is a language which is used to retrieve information from a database.Query language is divided into two types −Procedural languageNon-procedural languageProcedural languageInformation is retrieved from the database by specifying the sequence of operations to be performed.For Example − Relational algebra.Structure Query language (SQL) is based on relational algebra.Relational algebra consists of a set of operations that take one or two relations as an input and produces a new relation as output.Types of Relational Algebra operationsThe different types of relational algebra operations are as follows −Select operationProject operationRename operationUnion operationIntersection operationDifference operationCartesian ... Read More