It is one of the parts of the upper layers. The Application Layer, Presentation Layer, and Session Layers form the OSI reference model's upper layers. They provide user-oriented services. The session layer provides a defined set of services to the presentation layerPresentation Layer uses session layer protocols and transport services. The session layer service’s actual user is the application layer through which the presentation layer lies between them. It has relatively few features as compared to lower layers. It controls structures and the interaction between the application programme.It synchronizes the interaction between elements and controls the direction of information flow, ... Read More

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) provides a connectionless packet service that offers unreliable 'best effort' delivery. This represents that the packet's arrival is not guaranteed, and also there is no guarantee for the correct sequencing of forwarded packets.An application that does not require an acknowledgement of data receipt. For example, audio or video broadcasting used UDP.UDP is also used by application of the typical transmit of a small amount of data at one time. For example, UDP provides a protocol port to distinguish between multiple programs implemented on a single deviceEach UDP message includes both a destination port number and a ... Read More

SCTP stands for Stream Control Transmission Protocol. It is a new reliable, messageoriented transport layer protocol. SCTP, however, is mostly designed for Internet applications that have recently been introduced. These new applications, such as IUA (ISDN over IP), M2UA and M3UA (telephony signaling), H.248 (media gateway control), H.323 (IP telephony), and SIP (IP telephony), etc.SCTP combines the best features of UDP and TCP. SCTP is a reliable message-oriented protocol. It preserves the message boundaries, and at the same time, detects lost data, duplicate data, and out-of-order data. It also has congestion control and flows control mechanisms.Features of SCTPThere are various ... Read More

SLIP stands for Serial Line Internet Protocol. SLIP is an Internet protocol that allows users to gain Internet access using a computer modem. Today, SLIP is not used as frequently as its successor, PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol), which provides enhanced error detection and automatic configuration.SLIP is commonly used on dedicated serial links and sometimes for dialup purposes and is usually used with line speeds between 1200bps and 19.2Kbps. It is useful for allowing mixes of hosts and routers to communicate with one another (host-host, host-router and router- router are all common SLIP network configurations).SLIP defines a sequence of characters that frame ... Read More

IGMP stands for Internet Group Management Protocol. It is a protocol that allows several devices to share one IP address so they can all receive the same data. IGMP is a network layer protocol used to set up multicasting on networks that use the Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4). Specifically, IGMP allows devices to join a multicast group.IGMP is not a multicasting routing protocol; it is a protocol that manages group membership. In any network, there are one or more multicast routers that distribute multicast packets to hosts or other routers.The IGMP protocol gives the multicast routers information about the ... Read More

HTTPHTTP stands for "Hypertext Transfer Protocol." HTTP is the protocol used to transfer data over the web. It is part of the Internet protocol suite and defines commands and services used for transmitting web page data.HTTP uses a server-client model. A client, for example, maybe a home computer, laptop, or mobile device. The HTTP server is typically a web host running web server software, such as Apache or IIS.When you access a website, your browser sends a request to the corresponding web server, and it responds with an HTTP status code. If the URL is valid and the connection is ... Read More

VPN stands for Virtual Private Network. It allows you to connect your computer to a private network, creating an encrypted connection that masks your IP address to securely share data and surf the web, protecting your identity online.A virtual private network, or VPN, is an encrypted connection over the Internet from a device to a network. The encrypted connection helps ensure that sensitive data is safely transmitted. It prevents unauthorized people from eavesdropping on the traffic and allows the user to conduct work remotely. VPN technology is widely used in corporate environments.A VPN connection is shown in the figure below ... Read More

An intranet is a private computer network that uses Internet Protocol technologies to securely share any part of an organization’s information or operational systems within that organization.It is designed for the exclusive use of an organization and its associates, such as employees, customers, and other authorized people. It offers a secure platform to convey information and share data with authorized users.It is based on internet protocols (TCP/IP) and is protected from unauthorized access with firewalls and other security systems. The firewall monitors the incoming and outgoing data packets to ensure they don't contain unauthorized requests.So, users on the intranet can ... Read More

Wireless LAN is one of the fastest-growing technologies. IEEE 802.11 refers to the set of standards that define communication for wireless LANs (wireless local area networks, or WLANs). The technology behind 802.11 is branded to consumers as Wi-Fi.Wireless LAN can be found on college campuses, in office buildings, in hospitals, stock exchanges and in many public areas. It has become popular due to the ease of installation and location freedom with the gaining popularity of laptops.Wi-Fi is now one of the major forms of communication for many devices, and with home automation increasing, even more, devices are using it. Home ... Read More

There are three types of frame formats that are supported on a Token Ring network such as token, abort, and frame. The token format is the mechanism by which access to the ring is passed from one computer attached to the network to another device connected to the network.Here, the token format consists of three bytes, of which the starting and ending delimiters are used to indicate the beginning and end of a token frame. The middle byte of a token frame is an access control byte.Three bits are used as a priority indicator, three bits are used as a ... Read More