Introduction The cell surface is the outermost layer of the cell that interacts with the external environment. It is a dynamic and complex structure composed of various biomolecules, including lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. The cell surface plays a crucial role in communication between cells and their environment, and this communication is mediated by cell surface receptors. Cell surface receptors are transmembrane proteins that bind to specific molecules in the extracellular environment and transmit signals to the intracellular environment to elicit cellular responses. In this tutorial, we will explore the different types of cell surface receptors, their functions, and the ... Read More

Introduction Protein synthesis, the process of creating proteins from amino acids, is a fundamental process in all living organisms. This process requires the cooperation of many different molecules, including ribosomes, transfer RNAs (tRNAs), and aminoacyl tRNA synthetases (aaRSs). In this article, we will focus on aaRSs, the enzymes that attach amino acids to tRNAs, which are essential for the correct reading of the genetic code and the accurate synthesis of proteins. What is Aminoacyl tRNA synthetase? Aminoacyl tRNA synthetases (aaRSs) are enzymes that catalyze the attachment of specific amino acids to their corresponding tRNAs, a process called aminoacylation ... Read More

Introduction The process of developing organs from three germ layers is called organogenesis. Cell-cell communication, cell fate determination, cell survival and proliferation, cell and tissue size and shape, and the organization of cells into tissues and ultimately functioning organs are all covered. The process through which cells in an embryo's initial germ layers specialize and take on the properties of the tissues that they eventually give rise to is called histogenesis. Research in regenerative biology is based on the study of organogenesis since the production of cells and tissues in vivo and in vitro frequently uses regulatory processes that ... Read More

Organogenesis Organogenesis is the process through which plant organs i.e., shoots, flowers, and roots form from either an ex-plant or a callus of culture. A fully grown plant is made up of organs that are each specialized for a certain task, such as roots for taking nutrients and water from the soil, leaves for photosynthesis, and flowers for reproduction. These organs comprise tissues like the meristem, cortex, phloem, and epidermis. Organogenesis is the process by which various organs develop and begin. Introduction The growth of plant parts like the root system, flowers, and shoot system is carried out by meristematic ... Read More

Introduction Tissue culture is a technique used in biological research that involves introducing small pieces of plant or animal tissue into a brand-new, artificial environment, where they continue to function or develop. Although only a small portion of a tissue is frequently employed, it is significant to remember that whole organs can also be used for tissue cultivation. Here, the process is aided by the use of growth media like broth and agar. Callus Culture Callus is fundamentally an unorganized, dedifferentiated mass of cells that forms from any type of explant when cultured in vitro. The parenchymatous cells that ... Read More

Introduction A cellular response produced as a result of a series of molecular processes, most frequently protein phosphorylation catalyzed by protein kinases, known as signal transduction, which is the process by which a chemical or physical signal is transferred through a cell. Although in some instances the term sensor is used, generally speaking, proteins that detect stimuli are referred to as receptors. Definition The process through which a cell reacts to things outside of it via signaling molecule that is both inside and on its surface. The majority of molecules that result in signal transduction are chemical substances ... Read More

Introduction A signal peptide, also known as a signal sequence, is a brief peptide that is typically 16 to 30 amino acids long. It can also occasionally be found nonclassically at the C or internal regions of most newly synthesised proteins that are headed for the secretory pathway. These proteins include those that are either inserted into most cellular membranes or found inside specific organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi, or endosomes. The majority of type II and multi-spanning membrane-bound proteins are directed to the secretory pathway by their first transmembrane domain, which biochemically resembles a signal sequence ... Read More

Protein Targeting The biological process by which proteins are delivered to their proper locations inside or outside the cell is known as protein targeting or protein sorting. Proteins can be secreted to the outside of the cell, the plasma membrane, various intracellular membranes, the interior of an organelle, or the plasma membrane. The protein itself contains information that controls the delivery mechanism. Sorting correctly is essential for the cell, and problems with sorting have been connected to a number of illnesses. Introduction In eukaryotic cells, various proteins must be delivered to various locations within the cell or, in some ... Read More

Introduction Regardless of the species' level of ploidy, the C-value refers to the quantity of nuclear DNA in the unreplicated gametic nucleus. A carnivorous herb called Genlisea margaretae has a genome size of 0.129 pg (63 Mbp), whereas the monocot Trillium hagae has a genome size of 264.9 pg (for reference, Arabidopsis thaliana has a genome size of 0.321 pg; Bennett and Leitch, 2005; Zonneveld et al., 2005; Greilhuber et al., 2006. The plant C-value database contains C-value information for more than 5000 plant species. Genome Size The total amount of DNA in the unreplicated haploid nucleus, or ... Read More

Introduction Basic molecular genetics research has created brand-new possibilities for illness diagnosis. The potential to translate research results into practical applications in industry is enormous. A branch of biology that studies how variety in animals arises from variations in the structures or expression of DNA molecules is called Molecular Genetics. Genetic screens are frequently used in molecular genetics to "investigate" the structure and/or function of the genes in an organism's genome. Cellular biology, molecular biology, biochemistry, and biotechnology, as well as traditional Mendelian inheritance, provide the foundation of the field of study. To connect a gene sequence to a ... Read More