Introduction Animals and plants are different from unicellular organisms in that they exhibit a higher level of organisation. The cells are organized to form tissues in animals and plants. The tissues are specialised in their origin, function and structure. In this tutorial, we will be learning about epithelial and connective tissue in animals. What is a Tissue? Tissue refers to a group of cells which exhibit similar origin, function and structure. In animals, there are four types of tissues present, and the structure of these tissues depends on their function. The types of tissues present in animals are ... Read More

Erythropoietin: Meaning Erythropoietin, also known as erythropoetin, haemopoietin or haematopoietin is a cytokine belonging to the glycoprotein hormones secreted by the kidneys to stimulate red blood cell production in the bone marrow in conditions of cellular hypoxia. The process by which red blood cells are produced is known as erythropoiesis.The erythropoietin is synthesised by the interstitial fibroblasts of the kidneys in association with the peritubular capillary bed and proximal convoluted tubule. The perisinusoidal cells of the liver also produce erythropoietin. Erythropoietin production is more by the liver during fetal and perinatal periods. On reaching adulthood, the production is predominantly done ... Read More

Introduction Personality traits, when deeply classified, can give rise to 4000 terms. But are our personalities written in our genes or is it entirely our environmental factors that affect our traits? Various studies conducted till now show that a personality of an individual is multifactorial - affected by numerous factors - they can genetically inherit it from parents or environmental factors can influence a trait. Between 1979 and 1999, they studied about 350 twins in the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart. The study included both identical (monozygotic) and non-identical (dizygotic or fraternal)twins. The study observed that heredity passed some ... Read More

Introduction During the 1940s when scientists found non-chromosomal DNA that’s responsible for antibody resistance, they called it by several names. Episomes, plasmagenes, plastogenes and bioblasts were some of the terms scientists called them. In 1952, Nobel laureate Joshua Lederberg was the first to coin the term ‘plasmid’ by combining cytoplasm and ‘id’. Plasmids are mostly found in bacteria and some eukaryotes (multicell organisms). What are Plasmids? Plasmids are circular, small DNA pieces present in bacteria that can replicate without the influence of chromosomal DNA. While the genome contains millions or even billions of DNA base pairs, plasmids contain only a ... Read More

DNA is a double-stranded structure found in eukaryotes (multi-cell organisms) whereas RNA (Ribonucleic acid) are single-stranded structure found in prokaryotes (single-cell organisms like bacteria). During transcription, the DNA is converted into RNA inside the nucleus of a cell. Once converted the messenger RNA (mRNA) comes out of the nucleus and the translation process starts in the cytoplasm of the cell to produce protein. If the DNA is considered the genetic code, it has to be read and understood to process those instructions to carry out how the cell and thereby the entire organism functions. This process of reading the genetic ... Read More

Introduction DNA is an extremely tiny structure that is closely packed inside every cell giving constant instructions on how to operate an individual’s body. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) is the genetic molecule responsible for transmitting the characteristics of parents to children. Present inside the nucleus of the cell, DNA determines the structure, function and development of living beings. Most DNA is found encapsulated inside the cell nucleus called nuclear DNA while a comparatively lesser amount of it is present in the mitochondria of the cell called mitochondrial DNA. The genetic information is stored in the form of four nitrogenous bases – ... Read More

One of the most complex and compact forms of packaging could be found in the way DNA is packed inside the cell. Although DNA is very tiny, at about 2.6 nm, it runs into lengthy ribbons that should be tightly wound into coils to be contained inside the cell. A human cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. The diameter of a cell nucleus is only 2 micrometres inside which a 1.8 m long DNA has to fit in. Let’s look at the chromosome and travel deeper until we reach the DNA while understanding how it’s packed in every stage. ... Read More

What is Heredity? Heredity refers to the transfer of genetic traits from parents to their offspring; in sexual reproduction, both parents’ DNA come together and combine to provide offspring with two types of genes for each character. Later, each dominant gene carries a single character, which is visible in offspring. Hereditary in Asexual reproduction In asexual reproduction, one parent is involved, which results in organisms producing their exact copies. As a result, offspring are physically and genetically similar to their parents. This way, genetic uniformity can be seen in these organisms. With asexual reproduction, a population with genetic similarities can ... Read More

Introduction There are hundreds of distinct cell kinds in your body, including immune cells, skin cells, and neurons. Have you ever wondered why cells appear so different and function in such various ways if nearly all of them have the same set of DNA? The answer is - Gene Regulation! What is Gene Regulation? Gene regulation alters how cells behave. It is the mechanism by which a cell controls which of the many genes in its genome are "turned on". Despite the fact that nearly every cell in your body has the exact same DNA, each kind of cell ... Read More

Introduction Gene flow is the transfer of genes in a population. Gene flow is an important phenomenon that can contribute to the Evolution of a Population. All organisms are subject to this phenomenon, which has a profound evolutionary impact. Depending on the rates of gene flow, the process either encourages genetic diversity among populations or leads to genetic homogeneity. Gene Flow Gene flow is the exchange of genes between two different populations. It is also referred to as gene migration. This exchange of genes between populations occurs when people migrate or gametes are dispersed. Gene flow happens whenever a ... Read More