Introduction The terrestrial parts of the earth are inhabited by various types of living organisms depending on the prevailing environmental conditions. Some regions on earth receive adequate rainfall and support thick vegetation. While deserts receive extremely scanty rainfall, sparsely supporting plant growth. Flora and fauna inhabiting deserts are specially adapted to survive even the extreme aridity. Some dry regions receiving low rainfall lack huge trees and are populated by tall grasses. They are called grasslands or grassland ecosystems, or grassland biomes. There are many natural grasslands on earth, on almost all continents except Antarctica. Pampas, steppes, and prairies are popular ... Read More

Introduction Grasshoppers belong to the class Insecta of the phylum Arthropoda and are placed under the suborder Caelifera and order Orthoptera. They are flying insects and are more closely related to crickets. Grasshoppers are around 11, 000 species widely distributed around the globe. They inhabit almost all parts of the earth where vegetation is present except the polar regions. They are common crop pests and are a severe problem for farmers. They feed on grasses and plants forming the first consumers of food chains. Animals like frogs and snakes eat grasshoppers forming the next trophic levels. Characteristics Grasshoppers are ... Read More

Introduction Bacteria are microscopic organisms and are not visible to the naked eye. Studying the internal cell structure is much needed to understand the bacterial disease cycles. Most bacteria lack colour and are stained with staining agents for efficient observation under a light microscope. Gram staining is one such staining technique which imparts colour to the bacterial cell wall based on the cell wall biochemistry and its structural properties. Gram-positive bacteria retain the primary stain even after the discolouration step in Gram’s staining technique. Cell wall biochemical constituents allow the primary stain retention in the step-wise staining according to ... Read More

Introduction Gout is a form of inflammatory arthritis caused by the deposition of monosodium urate crystals and the progression of gout is categorized into four stages. Asymptomatic hyperuricemia is a condition with a high uric acid level in the blood and there are no symptoms, therefore treatment is not needed at this stage. Acute intermittent gout characterizes the swelling, redness, and pain caused by the accumulation of uric acid in joints. Intercritical gout is the condition of the duration between the asymptomatic phase and normal functioning of the joints, however, the crystals are continuous deposits that make another attack or ... Read More

Introduction Sexually transmitted diseases or infections commonly occur by sexual contact, which leads to cancer, HIV, pregnancy complications, infertility, and infections to other parts of the body. Gonorrhea is a sexually transmitted bacterial infection caused by Neisseria gonorrhoea, a human pathogen that is spread through sexual intercourse when the male and female have close contact with the genitals or body fluids. The incubation period of this infection is generally 3 to 5 days. It is highly contagious and causes worldwide morbidity and it usually affects the young population like other sexually transmitted diseases. A person who has a gonorrhea infection ... Read More

Introduction The male sex glands or gonads are known as testes or testicles; in females, it is known as ovaries. Within some lower invertebrates like hydrozoans, the gonads are temporary, but in higher invertebrates they are permanent. In organisms like worms and leeches, the gonads i.e both male and female gonads are present in a single individual. Usually, there are paired gonads which are responsible for the production of both, hormones and gametes which are necessary for reproduction. But in some species like male lizards, female crocodiles, female bats, etc only one gonad is seen. Development of gonads After the ... Read More

Introduction Abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland is known as a goiter. The thyroid may enlarge completely or it may produce one or more thyroid nodules, which are tiny lumps. At the base of the neck, the thyroid gland can be located and it is a butterfly-shaped endocrine gland. It lies exactly below the larynx, in the front and sides of the trachea. It secretes thyroid hormones, which are crucial for regulating many elements of metabolism throughout a person's life as well as for normal growth and development of the brain in children, besides playing a crucial part in the ... Read More

Introduction to embryology The branch of biology that deals with the study of the growth and development of the embryo are known as embryology. It covers the field of study that researches cellular, molecular as well as structural factors that help in the development of a species. Human embryology deal with the process of evolution of human from fertilized egg to a birth of an infant this period is also known as prenatal development or period. The growth and development of infants do not put stop at birth. Their various changes take place after birth. This time is known as ... Read More

Introduction The fusion of male gamete (sperm) and female gamete (egg) forms a zygote in sexual reproduction. The fusion of sperm with egg leads to the formation of the zygote is known as fertilization. Further, the zygotes develop to form an embryo. Fertilization can occur either outside the body or inside the female in animals. After fertilization, the egg can mature either inside or outside the female body. Generally, the egg has a protective covering over it if it develops outside the female body. All the animals present on the earth have different anatomical structures. Based on this the method ... Read More

Introduction to Elisa Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay is shortly known as ELISA. It is one of the most important immunoassays tests. It can identify the presence of some substances in the blood using laboratory technique that includes antibodies, antigens, proteins, glycoproteins, and hormones. In this process, the antibodies and antigens are combined to get a significant result. The antibody is the production of a type of protein by the immune system of an individual. This protein type bind to specific regions of target antigens. In the case of certain infectious diseases, we can detect the presence of antibodies in the body. ... Read More