Introduction Both horses and donkeys are domesticated and also found in wild across the world. Horses usually prefer open areas and like to travel in groups known as herds. For the last many centuries, horses are domesticated by people all over the world. They can live in all most all habitats. Horses have an excellent fight-or-flight response, possessing an excellent trait of fleeing from predators. Donkeys are also known as burros and asses. Both donkeys and horses belong to the same family Equidae. Wild donkeys are found in Deserts and Savannas in Northern Africa, Morroco, Arabian Peninsula, the Middle East, ... Read More

Introduction Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted in trace amounts by the endocrine cells. They transmit the information from one tissue to another tissue by diffusing it into the bloodstream. The messages transmitted to the target tissue help to control the metabolic and physiological activities in the target cells. A single hormone involves multiple effects on one target tissue or many different tissues. They are predominantly synthesized and released by the endocrine glands including the pituitary gland, adrenal gland, thyroid gland, pancreas, pineal gland, testes, and ovaries, however, they can also be produced and released in the non-endocrine tissues. ... Read More

Introduction: Hormonal Disorders Hormonal balance is essential for humans to lead a healthy life. A single hormone or pair of hormones with opposite functions work together to maintain the hormonal balance. However, fluctuations in the normal levels of hormones can occur due to the insufficient or excessive production of hormones which are called hormonal imbalances or disorders. It is also developed when the body cannot respond to the hormones, which have information to coordinate several functions in the body. Hormones are predominantly produced by the endocrine cells, and therefore, the hormonal disorder is also called an endocrine disorder. Hormonal disorders ... Read More

Introduction Hookworms are a type of parasitic nematodes that are inhabitants of the small intestine, skin and lungs of mammals like humans, dogs, and cats. Hookworms belong to the class Secernentea and the order Strongylida and the family Ancylostomatidae. Hookworm larvae and adults living in the small intestine can result in helminthiases, an intestinal ailment. Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus are the two main hookworm species that affect people. A. brasilense and A. caninum are the two canine hookworms that can infect people. In tropical and subtropical areas of the world, Necator americanus is the causative agent of nearly 90% ... Read More

Introduction Honey bees are a eusocial flying insect species that belong to the bee family and is indigenous to Afro-Eurasia. One of the many types of bees that make honey is the honey bee, Apis mellifera. Only bees from the Apini tribe, belonging to the Apis genus, are considered as true honey bees. The average honey bee colony/hive contains 50, 000 bees which consist of queens, drones, and workers. An estimated one-third of all the food crops we eat are pollinated by honey bees. Honey bee characteristics are − The stinger, legs, antenna, three segments of the thorax covered ... Read More

Introduction The term “Homeostasis” was given in 1926 by Walter Bradford Cannon. Homeostasis is derived from two Greek words ὅμοιος (homios) i.e., similar and στάσις (stasis) i.e., standing still. It is a self-regulating process that maintains consistency in internal, physical, and chemical conditions. This sets the optimal condition for the functioning of organisms. When optimal conditions are already present, homeostasis is maintained by the natural resistance to change. Homeostasis is a state of dynamic equilibrium; thus continuous change occurs while uniform conditions prevail. Examples of homeostatic regulation include control and coordination done by the electrical circuits, the nervous system, and ... Read More

Introduction to Guttation Guttation is the term given to the exudation of the xylem sap in the form of liquid droplets. These droplets are present on the tips and edges of the leaves of tropical plants. Guttation often occurs in moist soils during damp, humid nights, when water absorption is high, but transpiration is minimal. This phenomenon is easily observable in the early morning hours, and often can be seen during the later hours of the day as well. Guttation is observed among several angiospermous plants, especially the ones that grow in tropical regions. Examples include grasses, grapevines, strawberries, cereal ... Read More

Introduction One of the fundamental characteristics of living organisms is their ability to grow, i.e., to increase in size and/or cell number. Even monerans and protists undergo growth by multiplication. In higher organisms including plants and animals, growth is accompanied by development, which usually entails the evolution of certain special abilities and functions, and changes in morphological and physiological forms. Growth Any sort of irreversible increase in the size of an organism is referred to as growth. Growth is a result of an increment in the number of cells and enlargement of an individual cell. Types of growth ... Read More

Introduction to Genetic Material Mendel’s experiments with garden peas were a setting stone in genetics. He knew that some “factor” was responsible for the characteristics observed in organisms, which were passed down from each parent to the offspring. At that time, he wasn’t aware of what this factor was. However, one thing was certain; the genetic material was expressible and inheritable. After continued speculation regarding the molecular nature of the genetic material, certain groundbreaking experiments, including those by Fredrick Griffith (1928), Averty, MacLeod, and McCarty (1944), and Hershey and Chase (1952) laid conclusive evidence that helped establish that it ... Read More

Introduction In an ecosystem, diverse organisms live together and continuously interact with one another by transferring energy and nutrients. One organism is eaten up by another organism allowing the flow of nutrients and energy, forming food chains. Many food chains interact within a single ecosystem and make a food web. A food chain provides a clear-cut idea about the feeding patterns and relationships between diverse organisms living in an ecosystem. A grazing food chain derives energy from the sun. The photosynthetic green plants utilize solar energy and fix the abiotic carbon dioxide into a biologically available form that is glucose. ... Read More