The Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is called the fourth version in the development of the Internet Protocol. Its address is a 32-bit address which uniquely defines the connection that means here each address defines one, and only one, connection to the Internet.If a device has two connections to the Internet, via two networks, then we call it has two IPv4 addresses.IPv4 addresses are universal in a sense where the addressing system must be accepted by any host that wants to be connected to the Internet.Ipv4 address notationThere are three notations to show an IPv4 address which are as follows ... Read More

Let us understand the concept of flow control and congestion control.Flow controlIt is handled by a receiving side and it safeguards that a sender can only send something that a receiver can control or handle.Flow control handles a mechanism available to safeguard that communication flows smoothly.For example, a situation where somebody has a quick fiber connection could be sending on something or dial up similar. A sender could have the capability to send packets quickly, however that can be useless to a receiver on dialup. Thus they require a method to throttle the sending side.The issues related to flow control ... Read More

The Congestion at the network layer came across two issues which are throughput and delay.Based on DelayWhen compared to capacity of the network, if load is less, the delay is minimum.Here the minimum delay is composed of propagation delay and processing delay and both are negligible.Therefore, when load reaches the network capacity, the delay increases because we must add the queuing delay to the total delay.When the load is greater than the capacity the delay becomes infinite.Based on ThroughoutWhen load is below the capacity of the network, the throughput increases proportional to the load.After the load reaches the capacity, we ... Read More

The performance of a network can be measured in terms of Delay, Throughput and Packet loss.Let us try to understand the concept of Delay.DelayA packet from its source to its destination, encounters delays. The delays in a network can be divided into four types as follows −Transmission delayTransmission delay is the amount of time taken by the router to transfer the packet to the outgoing link is called transmission delay.For example, assume that you have 100 kb of data. For this data, you have to keep on this outgoing link and this is known as Transmission delay.Suppose you are vacating ... Read More

A protocol is a set of rules and standards that primarily outline a language that devices will use to communicate. There are an excellent range of protocols in use extensively in networking, and that they are usually implemented in numerous layers.It provides a communication service where the process is used to exchange the messages. When the communication is simple, we can use only one simple protocol.When the communication is complex, we must divide the task between different layers, so, we need to follow a protocol at each layer, this technique we used to call protocol layering. This layering allows us ... Read More

A protocol is a set of rules and standards that primarily outline a language that devices will use to communicate. There are an excellent range of protocols in use extensively in networking, and that they are usually implemented in numerous layers.It provides a communication service where the process is used to exchange the messages. When the communication is simple, we can use only one simple protocol.When the communication is complex, we must divide the task between different layers, so, we need to follow a protocol at each layer, this technique we used to call protocol layering. This layering allows us ... Read More

Switching is a technique of transferring the information from one computer network to another computer network.Let us discuss about switching in step by step manner as follows −Step 1 − In a computer network the switching can be achieved by using switches.Step 2 − A switch is a small piece of hardware device that is used to join multiple computers together with one local area network (LAN).Step 3 − These are devices which are helpful in creating temporary connections between two or more devices that are linked to the switch.Step 4 − Switches are helpful in forwarding the packets based ... Read More

There are two types of microwaves in computer networks. These are as follows −Terrestrial microwaveSatellite microwaveLet us discuss satellite microwaves in detail.Satellite MicrowaveIt is used for broadcasting and receiving signals. The signals are transmitted to space where these satellites are positioned and it retransmits the signal to the appropriate location.It acts as a repeater as it only receives the signal and retransmits it. The satellites should be aligned properly with the earth for this system to work. It is a physical object which revolves around the earth at a known height.Satellite communication is more flexible and reliable nowadays than cable ... Read More

There are two types of microwaves in computer networks. These are as follows −Terrestrial microwaveSatellite microwaveLet us discuss terrestrial microwaves in detail.Terrestrial MicrowaveIt is a technology which transmits the focused beam of a radio signal from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to another antenna.Microwaves are generally an electromagnetic wave which has the frequency in the range from 1GHz to 1000 GHz.These are unidirectional waves, whereas the sending and receiving antenna is to be aligned which means the antennas are narrowly focused.Here antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna which is present at km away.It ... Read More

When a data is transmitted from one device to another device is known as transmission mode, it is also known as the communication mode.Generally, the communication channel is a direction associated, and transmission media role is to provide the direction. So, we call transmission mode a directional mode.The transmission mode is work in the physical layer.Types of Transmission modeThe Transmission mode is divided into three categories, which are as follows −Simplex ModeHalf-duplex ModeFull-duplex mode (Duplex Mode)The types of transmission mode are shown in the chart below −Let us see the full duplex mode of transmission.Full duplex modeIn Full duplex mode, ... Read More